Abstracts

in alphabetischer Reihenfolge

Download als pdf

Maria Ángeles Alonso Alonso (Cantabria): I rapporti d’amicitia nelle province danubiane alla luce della documentazione epigrafica 

I rapporti privati che potevano stabilirsi al di là dell’ambito familiare ebbero un’influenza determinante nella dinamica sociale all’epoca dell’Impero romano. Oltre alla relazione patronus-cliens, nella quale quest’ultimo si trovava in una situazione di dipendenza rispetto all’altro, l’amicitia fu un tipo di legame sociale molto frequente fra individui a Roma. L’amicizia è un aspetto della società romana che si conosce molto bene grazie ai riferimenti degli autori classici, che la presentano come una qualità che rendeva l’uomo più nobile. Insieme alla percezione trasmessa dalla letteratura, la documentazione epigrafica costituisce una fonte d’informazione molto ricca per intraprendere lo studio di questo tipo di rapporto, giacchè non sono poche le iscrizioni che, attraverso la menzione del termine amicus, testimoniano l’esistenza di vincoli personali di questa classe in tutte le province dell’Impero romano.

Lo scopo della nostra ricerca è di analizzare i rapporti d’amicitia nelle province danubiane per mezzo dello studio della documentazione epigrafica. Da una parte, sarà nostro interesse chiarire quando l’espressione amicus si riferisce nelle iscrizioni a un semplice rapporto affettivo, oppure a un vincolo più formale, con obbligazioni e compensi reciproci. D’altra parte, concentreremo l’attenzione sui ceti socio-giuridici d’appartenenza degli individui tra cui si stabilì questo legame, così come nei casi di amici di collettività (collegia, associazioni, città, ecc.). La finalità è di esaminare i motivi che causarono e determinarono l’amicizia — come fu a volte la ricerca di riconoscimento per mezzo di vincoli con personaggi più potenti, o lo svolgimento di attività analoghe nell’amministrazione o nell’esercito —, e di analizzare gli ambienti e i contesti socio-politici che facilitarono la sua comparsa. In definitiva, vorremmo contribuire alla conoscenza della dinamica sociale nell’ambito municipale delle province del Danubio attraverso lo studio concreto dei rapporti di amicitia.

Jelena Anđelković Grašar / Milica Tapavički-Ilić (Belgrad): Cameos dubitandae, Women’s Images Reflecting the Female Side of the Post-Roman Society on the Territory of Upper Moesia

Apart from Roman cameos bearing women’s busts and which can be connected to certain empresses, according to their stylistic features, treatment of the entire image, hair and clothes, the cameos of the dubitandae type were made after the models of the Roman glyptic and dated into the post-Roman time. They include five examples from the National Museum in Belgrade and two from the National Museum in Požarevac. The Portraits on these cameos remain unidentified, but they were certainly made according to the fashion and visual treatment which, as a pattern, was posted according to cameos with empresses’ images. Cameos with female busts, most likely representing prototypes of empresses’ images, are typical for the Danubian region during the Imperial period (2^nd and 3^rd century). Although on a smaller scale, during the 4^th and 5^th century, they continue to be one of the basic forms of the imperial cult propaganda. These cameos basically represent empresses’ prototypes, without individual features, but with a specific hairstyle, which was most likely accepted among women of higher social status. Such cameos were most likely made with models — patterns with empresses’ images, distributes in the workshops along the Danubian Limes. During the Antonine and Severan dynasties and even later, by proclaiming their sons as heirs, emperors attempted to establish their dynasties based on blood connections and therefore, their wives, mothers of future emperors, played an exceptional role. Since cameos are artistic products with a long tradition and great importance for women’s portraits, in this paper, an attempt shall be made to answer the question of who these women of the post-Roman period could have been as well as who their models were.

Alberto Andreoli (Ferrara): Un soldato pannonico nel delta del Po (CIL XI, 340)

Nell’ambito di un progetto di ricerca sulla geografia storica dell’antico delta padano in corso di svolgimento, la presente comunicazione si propone di illustrare gli esiti dello studio particolare della stele funeraria di C. Aemilius Severus (CIL XI, 340). Il manufatto, noto da tempo, fu scoperto a S. Alberto, presso il Po di Primaro, e si conserva ora al Museo Arcivescovile di Ravenna. Come indicato nell’iscrizione che accompagna la raffigurazione scultorea del defunto, si tratta del segnacolo sepolcrale di un centurione, natione Pannonius, in servizio presso la flotta militare di stanza a Ravenna. Il reclutamento nell’esercito, com’è noto, fu un permanente formidabile strumento di romanizzazione e la lapide qui considerata costituisce un prezioso documento per lo studio delle “antichità classiarie”: l’organico dell’armata adriatica fu, per lo più, costituito da provinciali di condizione peregrina e l’entità della componente dalmatico-danubiana, comprovata per l’età giulio-claudia e flavia, pare riecheggiare — pur con le dovute riserve — nella coeva e più tarda documentazione epigrafica. Classiari e veterani ravennati di origine danubiana sono documentati in diverse località, non solo marittime, dell’Impero.

Dan Aparaschivei (Iași): Facilities and Medical Staff of the Lower Danube Roman Army

We intend to present the measures by which the Roman army stationed in the provinces of the Lower Danube was interested in preventing possible diseases, maintaining health and to cure the very potential wounds of its components. We refer to military hospitals archaeologically identified in the area, with related facilities, and the training and the capabilities available to the members of the military medical staff in the first centuries of the Christian era. The valetudinarium of Novae, in the province of Moesia Inferior, one of the best preserved military hospitals in the Ancient World, illustrates the professional approach of the medical system of the Roman army in the Lower Danube region. To this may be added the military hospital of Singidunum, but also those of other auxiliary and legionary camps in Moesia Superior or Dacia.

The density of military units garrisoned on the Lower Danubian limes allows us to outline the interesting diversity of the physicians who served both in the legions and in the auxiliary and naval units. Based on the epigraphic sources, physicians with different appellations were identified, some of these being unique within the Empire: medicus, medicus legionis, medicus cohortis, medicus alae, medicus vexillationis and medicus duplicarius. 

Radu Ardevan (Cluj-Napoca): „Dakische Steinblöcke“ im römischen Kontext, ein Problem der provinziellen Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte

Die so genannten, mit schwalbenschwanzförmigen Schlitzen versehenen „dakischen Steinblöcke“ sind typisch für die vorrömische Architektur Dakiens. Den Archäologen galt ihre Anwesenheit immer als Beweis für die Existenz einer vermutleten dakischen Festung in der Umgebung.

Es gibt aber wenigstens zwei Fälle, in denen Steinblöcke dieser Art im rein römischen Kontext entdeckt worden sind. Wir meinen, daß sie Gewichte für Öl- und Weinpressen aus dieser Zeit gewesen sein sollen, weil sie römerzeitlichen Werkzeugen ziemlich ähnlich sehen.

Also beweisen solche Entdeckungen die Existenz je einer villa rustica römischen Typs in ihrem Bereich, d.h. sowohl die Entwicklung einer provinziell-römischen Wirtschaft als auch die Umgestaltung der Sozialstruktur in Dakien.

Ennio Biondi (Besançon): Thracian Gold in the Archaic and Classical Age between Greek and Persian History

The aim of my paper is to reflect about some aspects of the economy of the Danubian region in the period preceeding to the context of the conference in order to furnish a model of comparison, namely the archaic and classical age. In this period Thracia is a conventional name that shows different geographical areas, some of these more linked to Greek influence. It is very probable that the ethnonym Skudrians in the Persian inscriptions suggests at least some Thracian community. (see for example W.M. Henkelman, Ethnic identity nad ethnic labelling at Persepolis: the case of the Skudrians, in P. Briant – M. Chauveau, (éd.) Organisation des pouvoirs et comntacts culturels dans les pays de l’empire achéménide, Paris 2009, 271–330)

From the economic point of view it is interesting to underline that a lot of ancient sources hint at the presence of gold in different parts of Thracia; e.g. Herodotos speaks about the people of the Agathirsi, rich in ornament of gold (Hdt. IV 104), probably from Carpatia while Thucydides hints at the Thracian mines of the Pangaeus (Thuc. IV 105).

The abundance of gold in this region, confirmed by the archaeological excavations, was probably more a reality than a Greek model of historiographical interpretation: our proposal is to analyze to what degree this richness attracted the interest of the Greeks and the Persians, namely the cases of the family of Miltiades and the Thracian conquest by the Great King Darius I.

Dilyana Boteva (Sofia): Society and Myths: How Was the Name of Moesia Invented?

The name of the Danubian province of Moesia is a puzzle, searching for a plausible solution based on stable ancient evidence. The prevailing opinion, that it appeared after the name of a tribe conquered by Rome in the Danubian region is without any single proof in the contemporary Roman literature, where military activities against the supposed Moesi are actually missing. Only later authors, like Cassius Dio for instance, report a campaign of Marcus Licinius Crassus in 29–28 BC against the Moesi. These later evidence are however not reliable enough when trying to find out what actually happened in the Danubian lands during the Roman conquest.

A strict chronological synopsis of the contemporary information indicates that the name Moesia appeared most probably as a result of the myths, introduced into the Roman society under Augustus. The need to find an acceptable name for the region in question was actually faced by Tiberius, who had to find out how to cover a politically incorrect ethnonym. Thus he introduced here a toponym from Northwestern Asia Minor, firstly attested in the Lower-Danubian lands only in the early 16 AD. As a result, the population of the newly established province of Moesia had to get accustomed to a name, introduced from outside with no historical or geographical grounds.

Octavian Bounegru (Iași): La fiscalité du poisson salé aux embouchures du Danube à l’époque romaine

Les problèmes de l’exploitation du poisson salé par les habitants de la cité d’Histria, située  relativement près des embouchures du Danube, ainsi que les rapports entre les Histriens et les fermiers de la douane romaine de cette région, se reflètent largement dans une remarquable inscription mise au jour dans cette ville. Il s’agit d’un texte épigraphique en latin qui contient en son début la décision d’un gouverneur de la Mésie Inférieure de 100 ap. J.-C. (Mannius Laberius Maximus) touchant à l’établissement des limites de la zone où les Histriens disposaient d’immunités fiscales, en particulier pour l’exploitation du poisson salé du Delta du Danube. Ces immunités fiscales étaient valables seulement pour le territoire rural délimité par Laberius Maximus, qui englobait une partie des embouchures du Danube. La commercialisation du poisson salé (tarichos) représentait la plus importante source de revenu de la ville, et il faut supposer l’existence d’un impôt sur le poisson salé (telonion tes ichtyïkes) dans les régions limitrophes d’Histria.

Nicolò Giuseppe Brancato (Rom): Una componente sui generis della società romana danubiana: gli alumni militum

Il ruolo degli alumni nell’antico mondo romano è stato variamente interpretato: dall’identificazione con la classe servile (Leclerc ed in ricaduta Grossi-Gondi, Le Blant, Gauthier, Del Castillo, Montanini, Descombres, Bradley) sulla base dell’assimilazione con gli expositi, all’individuazione di tre gruppi base (servi, liberti e satis rarum ingenui: Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, Harrod, Bachi) alla complessa articolazione proposta dal De Ruggiero e infine all’assimilazione con gli adottati (Nielsen, Edmonson, Curchin). Si sono visti inoltre nel termine potenziali semantici che vanno dalla figliolanza all’apprendistato allo stato di discipulus a quello di lavoratore dipendente alla schiavitù (De Ruggiero ed in ricaduta esemplificativamente Barnea, Staccioli).

Ora, un gruppo di titoli relativi a questi alunni riguarda gli alunni di militari ed ha una particolare concentrazione nelle province danubiane, Rezia esclusa perché priva di documentazione specifica, conseguenza dell'incisiva presenza di 
appartenenti all'esercito romano. A fronte infatti di un modulo statistico molto contenuto e che tuttavia è tipico di questa particolare tipologia, la percentuale media degli alunni di militari tra i titoli danubiani documentanti alumni è altissima, attestandosi sul 50%, mentre nelle altre zone ove questa tipologia epigrafica è presente è limitata al 3,3%. 

Ciò consiglia una raccolta e successiva analisi della documentazione epigrafica danubiana disponibile per poter rispondere agli eventuali interrogativi che questa situazione dovesse porre quale il ruolo socio-economico dei loro nutritori, nonché chiarire che il significato di discipulus proposto dal De Ruggiero non è applicabile ai casi che verranno trattati in questa sede. 

Maurizio Buora (Udine): Cornici di specchio quadrangolari con teste dionisiache agli angoli: una produzione danubiana diffusa dalla Crimea alla Gallia meridionale

Tra gli oggetti che negli ultimi tempi in varie aree hanno maggiormente attirato l’attenzione degli studiosi sono le cornici di specchio in piombo, che sono diffuse a migliaia nelle varie parti dell’impero romano e trovano una forte concentrazione lungo il medio e basso corso del Danubio. Esse, grazie alla facile lavorabilità del materiale, presentano una grande varietà di decorazioni, all’interno di poche forme, alquanto standardizzate. Tra queste spicca un tipo particolare, quadrangolare, che reca agli angoli teste di soggetto dionisiaco (Dioniso, Pan, satiro etc.). Sembra che la zona di origine sia l’area pannonica ove queste compaiono nei corredi funerari tra l’età di Marco Aurelio e quella severiana. Esse si diffusero lungo il Danubio fin oltre il suo delta arrivando da un lato in Crimea e dall’altro nella Gallia meridionale, ma giunsero, attraverso l’Italia settentrionale, anche a Roma. La loro popolarità fu tale da stimolare anche imitazioni più grossolane in area germanica. Il rinvenimento di alcune ad Aquileia costituisce occasione per un approfondimento della questione.

Juan Ramón Carbó (Murcia): Public Sacrificial Evergetism and Economy of the Sacred. The Case Study of the Oriental Cults in Dacia

The public sacrificial evergetism constitutes the highest form of civic traditional religion in the territories of the Roman Empire. On the one hand, the evergetism is presented as the way of distributing food paid for by the rich and powerful; on the other hand, the rich is who provides the victim of sacrifice, which is conceived as the central activity of the rite. The construction of temples and the erection of monuments are also other ways of participation in the evergetic practice, whose public nature is an expression of collective subordination to the State order. In this sense, the expressions of the sacred cannot be understood decoupled from the social and economic aspects that are at the base of the Roman religious activity. As our particular case study we will focus on detectable social and economic aspects in the manifestations of the Roman cults of eastern origin in the Dacian provinces, through the analysis of constructions of temples and the information provided by the epigraphic record.

Valentina Casella (Genua): Hecate in Dacia tra latitanza e assimilazione 

Ancora oggi permangono dubbi e perplessità sull’origine di Hecate e del suo culto; si tratta di una divinità particolarissima che possiede attributi tipici di ambiti che vanno da quello lunare e ctonio a quello magico. Il suo culto, ben attestato nel bacino orientale del Mediterraneo, risulta quasi assente nelle zone occidentali dell’impero e in Dacia. Infatti, nonostante la vicinanza di questa provincia con l’area che generalmente si riconosce come originaria del culto di Hecate (Asia Minore – Tracia), le testimonianze relative a tale ‘devozione’ nella regione risultano molto scarse. Per quale ragione la società dacica si dimostrò così restia ad accogliere questo culto? È possibile che in quest’area, più che altrove, Hecate sia stata vittima di quel sincretismo religioso tipico, non solo della fase storica in cui i Romani assoggettarono la regione, ma anche dello specifico rapporto che si venne a sviluppare tra lo sfondo cultuale autoctono e le divinità di importazione romana? È verosimile che proprio per questo motivo essa abbia perso le sue connotazioni specifiche a favore di una identificazione con Artemide – Diana e con Persefone? Quali furono, nel caso, le ragioni culturali, sociali ed economiche che condussero verso una simile soluzione? Questo contributo si propone di indagare l’ambigua vicenda della diffusione del culto di Hecate in Dacia e di verificare, all’interno del più ampio contesto relativo all’affermazione delle divinità orientali in questa provincia, quanto l’identità religiosa e sociale del territorio abbia opposto resistenza al culto di Hecate e quanto abbia invece assimilato alcune sue peculiarità sintetizzandole, magari, in altre entità divine di più ampia diffusione.

Chiara Cenati (Wien): L’indicazione dell’origo nelle iscrizioni Urbane dei soldati di provenienza danubiana e balcanica

Nell’ambito di uno studio più ampio sulla presenza a Roma di soldati (principalmente pretoriani ed equites singulares) provenienti dalle province danubiane e balcaniche dell’Impero romano dall’età severiana fino a Costantino, verranno in questa sede presentate alcune riflessioni sulle modalità di indicazione dell’origo nelle iscrizioni, prevalentemente funerarie, dei milites  reclutati da queste regioni nella medesima epoca. L’estrema varietà di forme nell’indicazione della provenienza dei personaggi menzionati è infatti un elemento caratterizzante di tali documenti. L’origo viene esplicitata generalmente attraverso la semplice indicazione della provincia o della città di provenienza, ma a queste spesso si sostituiscono o si accompagnano in varie combinazioni la menzione di una regione, di un pagus, di un vicus o dell’etnico. Questo contributo si propone di delineare un quadro generale della questione all’interno del panorama epigrafico, cercando di individuare, se possibile, delle tendenze di carattere geografico e cronologico, nonché legate allo status, alla tipologia di dedica o al corpo militare di appartenenza. L’indicazione dell’origo può essere influenzata infatti tanto dalla regione di provenienza, quanto da un habitus di un particolare gruppo in una data epoca. Verranno infine presentati alcuni singoli casi che meritano una trattazione specifica.

Mario Cesarano (Ferrara): “Dio è nato in esilio”. La nascita del culto imperiale sulle sponde del Mar Nero da Ovidio a Vintilă Horia 

Già dalla media età augustea sulle coste del Mar Nero numerose sono le attestazioni di omaggio e di adesione alla politica del principato che Augusto va instaurando, tanto nelle città di origine greca comprese nelle compagini provinciali quanto nei regni clientelari. Eppure, in esilio a Tomis, presso la foce del Danubio, Ovidio lamenta di trovarsi in una terra barbara e inospitale e trova l’unico modo per sentirsi civis romanus nella creazione di un sacrarium privato in cui onorare Augusto e la sua discendenza. Al centro del suo atto di devozione nei confronti del principe il poeta colloca un ciclo statuario dinastico, costituito in due fasi, ben individuabili. Il confronto, infatti, tra alcuni componimenti del poeta consente di circoscrivere l’invio dei busti argentei di Augusto, Livia e Tiberio, fattogli dall’amico Massimo Cotta, tra l’Ottobre del 12 e l’Agosto del 14 d.C. Nel 16 si aggiungono busti di Germanico e di Druso minore. La scelta di Ovidio va ad uniformarsi ad un comportamento sociale che va caratterizzando la società urbana romana altoimperiale, quando ogni civis diventa sacerdote di una religione civile, praticata nei fori, nelle basiliche, nei teatri, nei crocicchi delle strade e nelle dimore private, la quale si pone quale preludio alla nascita del culto imperiale vero e proprio, rispetto al quale percorrerà un binario a tratti parallelo e a tratti incrociato. Se in Occidente, a partire dall’altare eretto a Lione da Druso maggiore nel 12 a.C., Augusto viene onorato accanto alla dea Roma e se i Cultores Augusti si limitano a onorare del principe il Genius e il Numen, è Ovidio tra i primi che nel suo sacrarium lo elegge apertamente allo status di Deus, preconizzandone il destino di Divus.

Laura Chioffi (Neapel): Interfectus a barbaris. Morti violente in area danubiana documentate da epigrafi 

Le conquiste militari di II secolo sul fronte danubiano aprirono nuove frontiere e queste offrirono opportunità di vita e di guadagno sia per chi si arruolava, sia per chi era disposto a cercare fortuna nelle nuove terre con i propri mezzi e a proprio rischio. Alcune iscrizioni in lingua latina riferiscono di singole persone che trovarono in queste regioni una morte violenta per mano di nativi definiti “barbari”. La ricerca epigrafica permette di riunire in un piccolo dossier una decina di casi, per un’analisi dettagliata che ne delinea la successione cronologica e la distribuzione geografica, chiarendo le circostanze che di volta in volta determinarono il delitto, lo status delle vittime e il loro livello di romanizzazione, l’etnia dei responsabili dei crimini, il rapporto tra la frequenza delle attestazioni e il grado di pericolosità della regione in cui avvenne il crimine, il rapporto tra la frequenza delle attestazioni e il tipo di affari che circolavano in quella provincia.

Viktoria Čisťakova / Zdeněk Beneš (Prag): Aspects of Interregional Contacts: Roman Imports from the Danubian Provinces in the Context of Barbarian Territory

The paper will be focused on the question of long-distance interregional contacts between Roman Danubian provinces and Barbarian territory — Central Europe (with focusing on the territory of the present-day Czech Republic). The Danube river could be presented as a cultural and political border between the civilized world (the Roman Empire) and the Barbarian territory (an area inhabited by the Germanic tribes). On the other hand based on the archeological finds the Danube was a cultural connector between the Roman and Barbarian world, that provided political and trading contacts between two cultural groups. The imported goods from Pannonia are well known on the territory of the Czech Republic since the very beginning of the Roman Period — bronze vessels, jewelry, weapons, in the later period ceramics and glass ware.

Quite an interesting group in terms of cultural contacts along the Danube river during the 2^nd and the 3^rd century AD are anchor shaped brooches, that are related to a cultural environment of the Danubian Provinces (the Drina valley in Pannonia, Dacia and Moesia). They were detected on the territory of Central Europe (Nebovidy, Břeclav, Dobšice, Kuřim etc.) and occur among many more types of Roman fibulae during and after the Marcomannic wars. Based on the latest archeological finds the diffusion of this provincial type will be presented.

The last part of the paper will be focused on the heterogeneous group of the imports connected with the northern Black Sea area, that could indicate the contacts between the Black sea region and Central Europe.

Ioana Crețulescu / Lucian-Mircea Mureșan (Bukarest): Theory and Practice. Aspects of Roman Law Regarding Funerary Behaviour on the Lower Danube — A Study of Ancient Roman Sources

As was customary in the ancient Roman world, every aspect of life and death had a tendency to be regulated through Roman law. This was also the case of the funerary practices, such as burial, funerary plot ownership and who was entitled to raising a sepulchral monument. By thoroughly studying the ancient legal sources concerning this aspect, one could see in theory what were the regulations approved by law regarding funerary behaviour throughout the Roman Empire at a given time in history. On the other hand, by analysing the funerary epigraphy discovered in the provinces on the Lower Danube, one could observe how theory applied in practice, which legal regulations would be reflected in the epitaphs carved on stone monuments and the reason why law needed to be reiterated by individuals through personal actions. Aspects regarding tomb violations, defining the funerary plot, establishing heirs and their responsibilities to be carried out by them after the testator’s death will be discussed using both literary sources and Roman epigraphy. All these efforts are made to reflect how Roman society developed on provincial territory, such as the Lower Danube provinces, a region characterized by a permanent contact between the West and the East.

Dino Demicheli (Zagreb): Procurator vicesimae hereditatium in Dalmatia

The procuratores XX hereditatium played a very important role in the provincial financial administration. Their task was to collect the 5 percent tax (vicesima pars) of the inheritance and they were appointed from the equestrian order, but they could also be freedmen. There are only few inscriptions from Dalmatia mentioning this position or the slaves that were employed in the procurator’s office in the provincial capital of Salona. Besides this function, I will talk about an unexamined inscription on a sarcophagus from Salona, which was erected for the wife and ex-freedwomen of the procurator XX hereditatium. She hailed from Mediolanum and he was probably also originating from Italy. According to their names, they belonged to the Greek speaking population, which is very well attested in the inscriptions from Mediolanum.

Ulrich Denzer (Frankfurt a. M.): Die Münzprägung des Regalian im Kontext der Armeeversorgung in Pannonien

Der Name Regalian scheint eine Fußnote der Geschichte: In der unruhigen Zeit nach der Gefangennahme Kaiser Valerians in Persien 260 riefen sich im gesamten Reich Prätendenten zu Kaisern aus, unter anderem auch Regalian(us) (*verm. vor 220, † 260), ein auf dem Balkan verdienter Beamter. Nach und nach gelang es Gallienus, dem Sohn des Valerian, die Kontrolle im Zentrum des Reiches zurückzuerlangen. Damit trieb er Regalians Fraktion in eine so ungünstige Lage, dass er entweder in einer Schlacht fiel, oder nach einer Schlacht von seinen eigenen Soldaten umgebracht wurde.

Das alles wäre nur bedingt interessant, wäre nicht Regalian zum Zeitpunkt seiner Erhebung augenscheinlich Statthalter in Pannonien gewesen und hätte er nicht Münzen prägen lassen. Zwar ist der genaue Prägeort nach wie vor unbekannt, allerdings wird bereits seit längerer Zeit vermutet, dass er in Pannonien liegen müsste, wahrscheinlich sogar in Carnuntum, welches damals wirtschaftliches und administratives Zentrum der pannonischen Provinzen war.

Die übersichtliche Fundsituation begünstigt eine qualitative Fallstudie: Es liegen vermutlich nicht mehr als 13 Emissionen vor, 9 für Regalian, 4 für seine Frau Dryantilla (möglicherweise auch bedeutend weniger). Diese allerdings sauber zu separieren, wäre angesichts der kurzen Regierungszeit ein sehr ambitioniertes Unterfangen. Lediglich Stempelkopplungen können gewisse Aufschlüsse geben. Vor Regalian gab es in Pannonien keine Silbermünzprägung, nach ihm auch nicht, er musste also seine Werkstatt komplett neu aufsetzen. Die Münzen dürften im Wesentlichen für das Militär geprägt worden sein, da die bisherigen Münzquellen (Siscia/ Viminacium/ Mediolanum) Regalian nicht zugänglich waren.

Methodologisch wird vor Allem numismatisch vorgegangen, also die Übersicht der Münzhortfunde mit Regalian-Münzen unter der Frage zusammengefasst, welche lokale Reichweite und damit Ausmaß die von Regalian geprägten Münzen hatten. In diesem Zusammenhang sei hier bereits auf die entsprechenden Bände von RIC und MIR als Referenzwerke hingewiesen, angereichert mit den seit 2000 hinzugekommenen Forschungsergebnissen.

Zdravko Dimitrov (Sofia): New Archaeological Data from Ratiaria — Public and Private Baths As an Essential Element in the Development of Roman Society along the Danubian Limes

In 2013, the archaeological team: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zdravko Dimitrov (head of excavations), Assoc. Prof. Ivo Topalilov and Ilko Tsvetkov (deputy heads), restored regular archaeological excavations of the Roman military and civic center of Ratiaria, after an interruption of a quarter of a century and an almost complete plundering of the site by illegal diggers. As a result of two field campaigns (2013–14) our team has revealed a completely unexplored and unknown bathroom from the late antiquity. It consists of three rooms and an entrance hall. The main scientific problem is what the bath actually was — private or public. It is located at a short distance from the most representative complex of Ratiaria — the Residence of the provincial governor of the province Dacia Ripensis. The bath is a monument which confirms the strong economic development of Ratiaria in IV–V c. AD. It was built in the opus mixtum technique, with very stable walls, but its interior decorations are very impressive — some well-lined pools, marble slabs and architectural details in Ionic order, even parts of the mosaic floors, made of small polygonal ceramic segments. Another thermal complex in Ratiaria is in the southern part of the town. These are probably the largest Roman baths of the so-called “Imperial type” preserved today in Bulgaria. We plan their excavations in the forthcoming years, but now it’s possible to present some of the most impressive architectural details of the complex — Corinthian capitals, cornices, columns and bases. They are made with considerable resources. The materials are high quality limestone and marbles. For the interior decorations the services of Anatolian stonemasons were used. Finally we can mention that new studies in Ratiaria are essential both for scientific researches and for future exposure of the ruins.

Lucietta Di Paola (Messina): Obsequia e privilegia dei beneficiarii nelle province danubiane in età tardoantica

Il contributo, attraverso la rilettura di alcune fonti epigrafiche (e.g. CIL III, 3524; 15180; XIII, 3983, AE 1994, 1407–1421 etc.), con il riesame di talune testimonianze letterarie (Tert.; Aug.; Aur. Vict.; Lyd.), con la disamina di alcune costituzioni imperiali (CTh VIII, 4, 5; 7), si propone di indagare obblighi e privilegi dei beneficiarii distaccati nelle stationes dagli uffici periferici delle province danubiane. L’attenzione sarà focalizzata da una parte sull’exhibitio cursus publici, un munus a cui questi funzionari erano tenuti e al quale tentavano di sfuggire entrando negli ordini ecclesiastici, dall’altra sul privilegio di concludere il loro servizio in patria. Trattasi di una tematica, espressione di precisi orientamenti politici e di particolari dinamiche socioeconomiche che sia negli studi sui beneficiarii che in quelli sulle stationes non ha avuto il meritato riscontro. Il distaccamento spesso reiterato nelle stationes danubiane si situa infatti all’interno del sistema fiscale tardoantico e nel settore di controllo delle vie di comunicazione e delle frontiere nordoccidentali della romanità.

Saranno presentate delle immagini significative di beneficiarii e di oggetti-simbolo dei loro poteri, ciò aiuterà a definire meglio i loro compiti di vigilanza nel campo del servizio dei trasporti di stato e della sicurezza provinciale.

Michał Duch (Poznań): The Economic Integration of Lower Moesia within the Roman Empire

Tacitus characterised some of the territories which would later be a part of Lower Moesia as wild, infertile and bordering on the lands inhabited by hostile tribes (Tac., Ann., II, 64). In fact, shortly before the Roman conquest, the later Lower Moesia lacked urban centres with the exception of small Greek colonies on the western coast of the Black Sea. It was populated by tribes whose degree of economic development varied; most were nomadic, though there were also semi-nomadic peoples and farmers engaged in relatively inefficient agriculture. In addition, in the 1^st century BC and the 1^st century AD its territory was a scene of military operations, both on the Roman part as well as invasions from beyond the Danube (as we learn from the exceedingly dramatic account of Ovid). The factors mentioned (?) above as well as many others made the emerging Lower Moesia sparsely populated and economically backward.

Consequently, the overall state of affairs in Lower Moesia was not favourable for the numerous Roman troops there, which required considerable financial outlay and logistical effort. As a result, Roman authorities were compelled to improve the existing situation. In order to meet the army’s requirements, infrastructure and economic base began to be developed, which triggered the urbanisation of Lower Moesia. In the rural areas, agriculture progressed to the villa-based farming. There was also a substantial transfer of technology and capital from other, more developed parts of the Empire. Mineral deposits began to be mined on an extensive scale, the availability and quality of craft increased markedly as well. Coin became a widespread means of exchange and customs districts were created. All those factors combined fostered a successful economic integration of Lower Moesia within the Roman Empire.

Donato Fasolini (Alcalá): Francus ego cives Romanus miles in armis: l’ascrizione tribale nelle province danubiane 

Come per il resto dell’impero romano anche le province danubiane necessitano una ulteriore analisi ed una integrazione per quanto riguarda il dato della ascrizione tribale, in vista di un lavoro che aggiorni e rinnovi l’opera fondamentale di Wilhelm Kubitschek Imperium romanum tributim discriptum, Praha 1889. In particolare si vuole mettere in luce come l’uso delle nuove tecnologie possa aiutare ad approfondire la questione generale della ascrizione tribale. Questo intervento è dedicato alla diffusione delle singole ascrizioni tribali nell’ambito del territorio delle province Danubiane, con il proposito di offrire una immagine globale della loro distribuzione in percentuale. In tale occasione vi sarà anche modo di mostrare il database RITA (Roman Imperial Tribal Ascription), specificatamente dedicato alla ascrizione tribale nell’Impero Romano.    

Federico Frasson (Genua): Società ed economia in un insediamento romano ai confini dell’impero: il caso di Troesmis 

Alla luce delle fonti antiche e in particolare delle numerose iscrizioni provenienti dalla romana Troesmis e dal suo territorio, si esaminano i vari aspetti della vita sociale ed economica dell’insediamento nella sua evoluzione da fortezza legionaria a municipium.

Dénes Gabler (Budapest): The Role of the Customs Districts in Forming Economic Units

The political-strategical-cultural blocks in the Roman Empire functioned as economic units as well. The European provinces may be divided into two major groups: the Gaulish-German provinces and the ones of the Danube valley. The economic development of these two areas differed significantly not only as certain points in time, but diverged all through the centuries of the imperial period. The establishment of customs districts and the organisation of their administrative network played an important role in forming these economic units. Experience has provided evidence that the distribution of certain goods transported too far from their production areas can be recorded by the borders between customs districts. It can be contemplated that the markets may have been divided to facilitate the quick and efficient supply of the two main armies in Europe: namely in the Rhine region and in Illyricum. This supply could have been made possible by the clear distinction between shipments. A certain duality is apparent both in the spectrum of imported pottery and sources concerning the problem of which customs district Raetia belonged to. Some features in the composition of typen within the imported material (Italian terra sigillata of the Tiberian-Claudian period, Sarius ware, glazed Italian pottery, lamps, Raetian pottery) indicate strong economic ties with the Danubian provinces. Other ware however, reveals differences between the two areas (terra sigillata tardo-padana, thin-walled pottery, amphorae, samian ware produced in Westerndorf or Pfaffenhofen). This contradiction should perhaps be explained by suggesting the change in customs borders by annexation of the province. That is, a customs district may be regarded as an economic unit and as such must be taken into consideration, when the distribution of several interprovincial types of finds is discussed. 

Cristian Găzdac (Cluj-Napoca): Mirroring the Roman Society and Economy in the Danube Provinces. The Subtlety of Roman Monetary Policy towards the Periphery

One of the key features with a high impact on the dynamics of the Roman society and its economy is the coin supply.

The topic of this paper is based on my 15 years’ research on the coin circulation in the Middle and Lower Danube provinces during the 2^nd–3^rd centuries AD, from the conquest of Dacia and its transformation into a Roman province to its abandonment by the Romans. The analysis of over 20,000 single coin finds, and other 500,000 from hoards, as well as the distribution of coin supply by sites (civilian and military) has allowed the identification of the flexibility and subtilitatea of the Roman imperial monetary policy in regard to the provinces from the Lower and Middle Danube.

This paper will present general and specific patterns of coin circulation that will emphasize how the Roman state actually acted in the coin supply in this region. 

Many scholars have considered the area of the Middle and especially the Lower Danube as a periphery of the Empire and, somehow, Rome just saw them as sources for profit.

The spectrum of the numismatic evidence would prove otherwise. In fact, Rome was extremely careful on covering the needs of these provinces when it was about the coin supply. Provinces such as Dacia and Pannonia were among the heaviest militarized which meant a high consumption of money.

Apart from this aspect, the paper will discuss also how the state reacted to the management of the monetary crisis on the Danube in the 3^rd century; when and where the Greek provincial coinage played the role of central coinage with the state permission.

The analysis of the hoards’ structure will point out how the society actually reacted to monetary changes — e.g. denarius vs antoninianus; Greek provincial vs central issues; civilian vs military hoards.

Eva Katarina Glazer (Zagreb): Society and Economy in the Croatian Danube Region at the End of the Iron Age

The Croatian Danube region at the end of the Iron age witnessed dynamic changes in the social stratification caused by the process of romanization. The economic effects of the Roman conquest of the Drava, Sava and Danube interfluve were accompanied by cultural and religious innovations. Our knowledge of the modalities of these processes is still incomplete due to the lack of archaeological excavations, but the research done so far has provided enough information to understand the structure of the society and an insight into its economic activites. This paper will try to present several sites and artefacts that can provide a better understanding of economic activites and social stratification of the population in the Croatian Danube region in this period.

Snežana Golubović (Belgrad): The Role of Jewelry in the Roman Graves from Viminacium

Viminacium is so far best known for its large number of graves excavated during the last decades of the twentieth century at the southern necropolis. As Viminacium was municipium, then colonia, strategical and administrative centre of the Roman province Moesiae Superior, a number of necropolises have been established for the burials of a heterogeneous population. In this century the rescue excavations of eastern cemeteries began, which contributed with more than 1000 graves to the number of 13,000 already explored.

In general, all Viminacium graveyards were biritual, there were graves with cremation and inhumation. The subjects of the paper are the meaning and the role of jewelry as grave goods in various types of graves, whether in cremations or inhumations from the period of the late 1^st till 4^th century. Jewelry had a special value considering the social, material and religious status of the deceased. This is an attempt to reveal the significance of particular pieces in connection to the social status, gender, age and ethnicity. This leads to the approach to examine the context which jewelry is found (??), in what quantity, with which other artifacts, and what specific types of jewelry are found with certain persons. The expected result is to identify specific types of jewelry items and the materials they are made of, that proved to be a means of gender and age differentiation as well as ethnicity and religious affiliation.

Herbert Grassl (Salzburg): Neue inschriftliche Texte zu ökonomischen und sozialen Transformationsprozessen im Ostalpenraum

Die ökonomische Erschließung der römischen Donauprovinzen erfolgte über klar erkennbare Kommunikationsrouten und Austauschplätze (sogenannte "Ports of Trade"). Auf der Bernsteinstraße erfüllte die Siedlung von Nauportus (im heutigen Slowenien) genau diese Funktion. Neue Inschriftenfunde und eine revidierte Lesung und Interpretation eröffnen einen geschärften Blick auf den Güterverkehr und die mit der Romanisierung verbundenen ökonomischen und sozialen Transformationsprozesse.

Lily Grozdanova (Sofia): The Coinage of Pautalia – Some Key Aspects 

The mint of Pautalia, a city in the province of Thrace, is active from the second half of the 2^nd C AD till the beginning of the 3^rd C AD. 

The city issuing is uninterrupted during the entire period, which by itself is an unusual phenomenon worth exploring. Furthermore this makes it possible to observe how the financial activity of the city is developing and changing under the different rulers from the Antonine and the Severan dynasties. And also in what way the local polis elites, personally responsible for the issues, react to the activity of the central government. 

The type variety of the Pautalia coinage is impressive. Nevertheless the predominance of the motifs connected to the health cult is more than obvious. This, together with the epigraphic and archaeological evidence convincingly indicates the great importance of the cult and the medical activities for the city.  

The numismatic materials reveal information concerning the self-representation of the polis and its interaction with the neighboring cities. The characteristics of the motifs variety and the particular workmanship of the coin dies enable the acquisition of data for the financial system not just on the level of Pautalia but also on regional and provincial level. They raise questions concerning the physical production process, as well as which identity construct could be approached through the information the coins mediate.   

Though Pautalia is not the biggest and most important economic center in the region the specifics of its issues offer impressively ample research opportunities and directions.

Christian Gugl / Cristina Alexandrescu (Wien): Troesmis: Siedlungsräume und Verwaltungsräume

Die römisch-byzantinische Siedlung Troesmis zählt zu den größten antiken Stätten Rumäniens bzw. der unteren Donau. Sie lag im Nordwesten der rumänischen Dobrudscha und nahm eine strategische Schlüsselposition am unteren römischen Donaulimes ein. Die Siedlung befand sich am rechten Steilufer der Donau, etwa 15 km südlich der heutigen Stadt Măcin, dem antiken Arrubium, und 4 km nördlich des Dorfes Turcoaia (jud. Tulcea), unweit einer im 19. Jh. bestehenden Lokalität namens Igliţa, die heute nicht mehr existiert. Das weitläufige Ruinengelände, das durch zwei heute noch gut sichtbare Befestigungsanlagen, der sogenannten Ost- und der Westbefestigung, beherrscht wird, erstreckt sich von der Donau ausgehend nach Osten bis zu den Ausläufern des Măcin-Gebirges. Diese archäologische Stätte ist als eines der wenigen unverbauten römisch-byzantinischen Großsiedlungen an der Rhein- und Donaugrenze ein archäologisches Denkmal von überregionaler Bedeutung.

Im Rahmen eines internationales Projekts mit Partnern aus Bukarest, Tulcea, Wien und Innsbruck konnten durch geomagnetische Messungen das lange gesuchte Lager der legio V Macedonica sowie Teile der Lagervorstadt lokalisiert werden. Mithilfe von Oberflächensurveys, luftbildarchäologischen Kartierungen und Airborne-Laserscanning war es möglich, in den Jahren zwischen 2011 und 2014 die Ausdehnung der Siedlung sowie der Gräberfelder einzugrenzen. Aufgrund der epigraphischen Überlieferung können wir in Troesmis davon ausgehen, dass neben dem Legionslager und den canabae noch ein weiterer ziviler Siedlungsraum existierte, der über Selbstverwaltungsrechte verfügte. Veteranen der Legion bekleideten sowohl Ämter in den canabae als auch in dieser Zivilsiedlung (ISM V 158). Der ordo Troesmensium stiftete für den Lagerpräfekten Tib. Veturius Mauretanus eine Statue (ISM V 143). Ein Weihealtar für Jupiter wurde von den cives Romani Tr[oesmi consist(entes)] gesetzt (ISM V 157). In einem vom Jubiläumsfonds der Österreichischen Nationalbank finanziertem Projekt soll nun der Frage nachgegangen werden, inwieweit man diese in den Inschriften fassbaren Verwaltungsräume im archäologischen Befund wiederfinden kann.

Ágnes Gyuricza (Budapest): The Role of Children in the Pannonian Economy and Society

Was mein Forschungstema betrifft, beschäftige ich mich mit der Lage der Kinder in Pannonien.

In der Römischen Welt sonderte man nicht das Kindesalter von dem Erwachsenenalter ab. Die familiäre Wirtschaft brauchte auch die Arbeit der jüngsten Kinder. Ich forsche die Rolle der Kinder sowohl in der provinziellen als auch in der städtischen Wirtschaft.

Die Legionen wurden von dem Römischen Reich in der Provinz Pannonien stationiert. Die Soldaten durften wegen des Gesetzes nicht heiraten, trotzdem lebten viele von ihnen mit einer Frau zusammen. Wenn sie aber ein Kind bekamen, wurde es Sklave.

Ich untersuchte die Darstellung der Kinder auf den Gräbern, auf den Mosaiken, an den Wandgemälden, und die Erwähnungen der Kinder in den Aufschriften.

Manfred Hainzmann (Graz): Zum Kultverhalten der municipalen Eliten in Noricum

Ein nicht unbeträchtlicher Teil der norischen Weihinschriften stammt von der municipalen Oberschicht. Wie alle sozialen Schichten hatten natürlich auch die Amtsträger der norischen Municipien regen Anteil am Kultgeschehen. Was gerne übersehen wird ist das Faktum, dass sie innerhalb ihrer Gemeinden ohnehin für die Organisation der Kulte verantwortlich zeichneten. Die Gesamtschau der erhaltenen Weihedenkmäler offenbart zudem, dass es unter dem 'Municipaladel' auch zahlreiche Anhänger der einheimischen — regionalen wie lokalen — Kulte gab. Eine der zentralen Fragen, denen der Referent nachgehen möchte ist, ob die jeweiligen Dedikationen der offiziellen oder der privaten Kultausübung zuzuordnen sind. Dazu soll nun nicht nur das ganze Spektrum der einzelnen Kultäußerungen näher beleuchtet, sondern zugleich danach Ausschau gehalten werden, inwieweit sich auch in Noricum aufgrund fortschreitender Romanisierung und Akkulturation eine Provinzialreligion eigener Prägung herausgebildet hat.

Mihaela Iacob (Tulcea): La moneta della provincia di Bithynia et Pontus nelle province danubiane: relazioni economiche o movimenti della popolazione?

Tra le monete straniere scoperte nella provincia di Mesia Inferiore ed in altre province danubiane le monete provinciali romane di Ponto e Bithynia (principalmente le emissioni di Nicea, Nicomedia) occupano un posto importante. La loro presenza in Mesia Inferiore si spiega attraverso le relazioni economiche speciali tra le due province, materializzate in presenza di uomini — emporoi (commercianti), navigatori, artisti — , dei quali le fonti epigrafiche ci danno informazioni interessanti.

L’ipotesi che le monete di Nicea e Nicomedia abbiano funzionato come moneta in circolazione in questa zona (Crawford) è contraddetta da una scarsa presenza di queste monete nei tesori. L’autore farà poi un`analisi delle scoperte monetarie nelle provincie di Dacia, Mesia Superiore, Pannonia Inferiore, Pannonia Superiore, Noricum, Raetia, cercando una spiegazione della loro presenza.

Antonio Ibba (Sassari) / Lucretiu Mihailescu-Bîrliba (Iași): Vicus Bad(---): il contributo dell’epigrafia alla ricostruzione del tessuto socio-culturale di un villaggio della Moesia Inferior (I–III secolo d.C.)

Negli anni Ottanta del XX secolo il quadriburgium di Mihai Bravu, nella contea di Tulcea in Dobrugia (antica Moesia poi Moesia Inferior) ha restituito una dozzina di iscrizioni pubbliche o private, per lo più frammentarie, solo in minima parte recuperate ed edite: i testi forniscono un interessante spaccato sulle istituzioni del villaggio, sulla monumentalizzazione del sito, sui culti praticati e soprattutto sulla popolazione (veterani, immigrati dotati almeno della cittadinanza latina, liberti) che risiedeva nell’altrimenti ignoto vicus Bad(---), costituitosi durante l’Alto Impero, in seguito smantellato per far posto al fortino costantiniano. Ne emerge uno spaccato interessante sui processi di romanizzazione, urbanizzazione ed occupazione delle aree agricole a ridosso del limes danubiano prima della Tetrarchia, da confrontare con i dati che sempre più numerosi provengono dalla medesima contea di Tulcea.

Emil Jęczmienowski (Warschau): The Economic Significance of the Limes in Upper Moesia As an Internal Border from 106 to 270 AD

The paper tries to systematize the data acquired through various sources, about the economic significance of the Upper Moesian limes during the period when the northern border of the province served as an internal boundary of the Roman Empire, between Trajan’s Dacian wars and Aurelian’s withdrawal from Dacia (ca. AD 106 – 270). This period is characterized by the fact that many of the limes fortifications continued to exist, although the Upper Moesian limes was not an imperial frontier anymore. The border changed its function.

This situation was a result of many factors, including economic ones, which were of great importance, such as trade, transport and supply, but also protection of important mines lying inland. These factors, along with various sources concerning them, shall be discussed.

Péter Kovács (Piliscsaba): Constans and Pannonia

Very little is known on the history of Roman Pannonia under the reign of Emperor Constans because after Constantine’s death the Pannonian provinces belonged to him until his death in 350 AD and the contemporary sources only scarcely mention the province. In my paper I intend to deal with the history of this period and I shall point out a hardly known Sarmatian incursion after Constantine’s reign. It is also important to examine the ecclesiastical history because of the spread of Arianism in Illyricum and the role of bishops Valens of Mursa and Ursacius of Singidunum during the council of Serdica in 343 and after.

Aleksandra Krauze-Kołodziej (Lublin) / Francesca Ceci (Rom): Una stele di Orfeo. Il monumento funerario di Marco Aurelio Vero a Poetovium. Uno studio iconografico 

Questo contributo si propone l’analisi iconografica del cosidetto Monumento di Orfeo che si trova a Ptuj, una città nella parte nord-est della Slovenia, la romana Poetovium divenuta con Traiano Colonia Ulpia Traiana Poetovio.

La stele funeraria, innalzata nel II sec. d.C. in memoria di Marco Aurelio Vero, è un soggetto estremamente interessante non solo perché presenta un programma iconografico ricco e complesso ispirato al mito di Orfeo, ma anche perché da secoli è considerato un simbolo della città, tanto che nel Medioevo fu usato come gogna. La sua analisi sembra ancora più necessaria perché il monumento è stato alquanto trascurato dagli studi storico-artistici e iconografici. Riconosciuto già da Simon Povoden (1753–1841), storico di Ptuj, fondatore del Museo Regionale (oggi Ptuj-Ormož Museo Regionale) che nel 1830 l’inserì nella sua collezione, successivamente il monumento è stato menzionato da pochi ricercatori (p.es. da Goddard King, Strong, Garezou, Diez, Bisi), che in genere danno solo la descrizione.

La presentazione, grazie alla collaborazione delle autrici, fornirà uno studio completo della struttura stilistica e iconografica del soggetto, cercando di descrivere, analizzare, e quindi, grazie ai confronti iconografici diversi, di interpretare il significato complessivo della stele funeraria.

Lo studio vuole anche presentare Poetovium come un centro sociale e religioso molto importante nell’antichità, dove si svilupparono diversi culti locali, come quello delle ninfe, e rituali misterici, testimoniati da numerosi mitrei immediatamente limitrofi all’insediamento romano.

La presentazione si propone di essere anche l’introduzione a ulteriori ricerche, incentrate sulla varietà delle credenze religiose nella zona di Ptuj, confine lontano dell’Impero Romano e crocevia di cultura e religiosità.

Adam Łajtar (Warschau): New Inscriptions from Novae Referring to the Institution of pastus militum

Lower Moesian Novae, the seat of the First Italic legion, has so far yielded seven inscriptions connected with the Late-Antique institution of pastus militum. All of them commemorate the erection of statues by primipilarii after the successful completion of the transport of provisions from their home provinces to the legionaries on the limes. This collection was augmented in the last two years by six further items. They came to light during preparatory fieldwork preceding the implementation of a conservation and restoration project in the central zone of the legionary fortress.

Among the newly discovered inscriptions three are in Latin and three in Greek. In my paper, I will present the Greek part of the lot, trying to evaluate the inscriptions from the historical and cultural point of view. 

Tino Leleković (Zagreb): Social and Economic Processes in Southern Pannonia from the 1^st–4^th Centuries AD

This paper will try to present the current understanding and future directions in the study of the Roman economy of the southern part of Pannonia, with emphasis on the role of trade and local manufacture of goods used in everyday life. The paper will be based on the research conducted on (?) Croatia, but also other parts of southern Pannonia will be taken into account. It should be noted that studies on social history and economy are mostly neglected in these parts, often based on insufficient historical sources and scarce epigraphic finds. Because of that, the knowledge of economy and social history of southern Roman Pannonia was often incomplete and vague. In the past two decades the approach to the archaeological research in the region changed significantly. These changes are particularly visible thanks to large rescue excavations, through which significant amounts of finds and information were obtained. The good quality of this information opened many questions that previously were not visible, causing new developments in the study and the change of perception on Roman towns in southern Pannonia, on the rural landscape and on the relations between individual sites on both regional and local level.

Basic assumptions on urbanisation of southern Pannonia, established in the 20^th century, primarily by András Mócsy, are confirmed by these excavations. It can be concluded that the urbanisation and integration of this part of Pannonia started in Flavian times with the foundation of two colonies, Siscia (Sisak, Croatia) and Sirmium (Srem. Mitrovica, Serbia). Both colonies were founded on points where the river Sava meets other regional trade and transport routes, which connected Pannonia with the Balkans and Adriatic. It is important to note that Siscia was founded in the upper course and Sirmium in the lower course of the river. The geographical position of these two towns and the fact that a significant part of colonists were veterans of the imperial fleets, proposes that their foundation was a part of thought-out imperial policy of upgrading Sava into a main regional transport route. A similar “transport” policy was introduced on the Drava in Ulpian times. Trajan founded the colony of Poetovio on the point where the Amber route crosses the Drava, while Hadrian founded Mursa near the influx of the Drava into the Danube. These four towns became centres of economy and of the Roman way of life (??), which makes them crucial subjects for the study of the Roman economy, social history and the ancient history in general for this part of the Empire. In this regard, numerous excavations that have been recently conducted in Siscia and Mursa significantly affected the study of the Roman economy and social history in Croatia. Furthermore, the archaeological excavations conducted in the rural landscape provided an insight in areas previously unknown to Roman provincial archaeology, but crucial for the study of the economy in Pannonia, especially those concerning agriculture. The most important result of analyses of material from these excavations is the change of perception of historical and social developments in southern Pannonia in a way that the region has to be observed diachronically (???). This means that the level of urbanisation, economical organisation of the region and every day life changed significantly in different phases of the Roman period. 

These general assumptions will be illustrated with several case studies and examples of archaeological investigations with emphasis on defining stages of socio-economic changes that occurred in the Sava and Drava region during the Roman period.

Stefano Magnani / Paola Mior (Udine): Presenze orientali nelle province danubiane: aspetti sociali e religiosi

La presenza di un numero piuttosto elevato di individui di origine orientale nelle province danubiane nel corso del II e del III secolo d.C. è un fenomeno ben noto, riconducibile in particolare alla presenza di numerosi reparti militari ausiliari reclutati in oriente e in seguito dislocati lungo il Danubio.

Non di rado, al termine del servizio molti dei veterani preferirono rimanere con le proprie famiglie nei luoghi nei quali avevano prestato servizio militare e ove avevano intessuto nel tempo una rete di rapporti e relazioni, insediandosi nei centri gradualmente sviluppatisi in ambito provinciale e dando vita a forme estremamente interessanti di mescolanza socio-culturale. In tali contesti, infatti, sovente essi furono chiamati ad assumere ruoli di responsabilità politica, economica e amministrativa, ricoprendo cariche ufficiali e promuovendo, come rappresentanti locali della più ampia entità imperiale, il processo di "romanizzazione" delle realtà provinciali. In qualità di veterani, questi individui mantennero stretti legami con l’ambito militare di appartenenza, tanto che spesso figli o nipoti finirono per militare negli stessi reparti, ormai integrati su base regionale, contribuendo a rafforzare i rapporti tra gli elementi militari, le entità civiche e le comunità locali. Al tempo stesso, essi conservarono a lungo forti vincoli identitari, rinsaldati tramite l’adesione ai culti e alle tradizioni religiose comuni e proprie dei rispettivi luoghi d’origine.

Fra i nuclei più consistenti di individui di origine orientale vi è quello dei Palmireni, stanziati in diversi centri della Dacia romana a partire dall’età di Adriano, sui quali questo studio intende focalizzare l’attenzione attraverso l’esame della documentazione epigrafica ed archeologica, nel tentativo di fornire un quadro dettagliato delle loro presenze e di contestualizzarne l’impatto sociale e culturale.

Yolande Marion / Pierre Machut (Bordeaux): La commercialisation des produits istriens (huile, vin et garum) dans les provinces danubiennes : nouvelles données

A l’époque impériale, l’Istrie a pour principale production l’huile d’olive, réputée dans le monde romain et exportée dans des amphores Dressel 6B vers l’Italie du Nord et le Danube, alimentant l’un des principaux courants commerciaux de l’Empire. Cette production est dominée au cours du Ier s. par les deux grands ateliers de Fasana et de Loron, propriétés de grands personnages de l’ordre sénatorial, avant de passer aux mains de l’Empereur sous les Flaviens ; mais il existait au moins huit autres ateliers entre la Mirna et Trieste. Par ailleurs, les fouilles récentes ont révélé, à Fasana et Loron, deux productions secondaires : des petites amphores similaires aux Dr 6B, probablement destinées au garum, et des amphores à vin. La diffusion de l’huile, la mieux connue, s’est appuyée jusqu’ici essentiellement sur les timbres et la typochronologie des Dr 6B ; cependant, le bilan est faussé car les trois-quarts des amphores ne sont pas estampillés et le timbrage cesse après Hadrien alors que la production se poursuit jusqu’au IVe s. La commercialisation du vin et du garum est encore plus difficile à appréhender car leurs conteneurs restent mal identifiés. En complément de ces approches traditionnelles, de nouvelles données archéométriques permettent des progrès importants. Les analyses, actuellement en cours au laboratoire de l’IRAMAT, montrent que les signatures physico-chimiques d’une même production à Loron ont varié avec le temps. Elles aboutissent aussi à la caractérisation des argiles utilisées dans ces différents ateliers istriens et pourront ainsi servir à déterminer l’origine istrienne ou non de certaines amphores présentes sur les deux rives de l’Adriatique. Par ailleurs, elles pourront donner des éléments de réponse en ce qui concerne des amphores Dr 6B estampillées mais repérées dans la seule zone du moyen Danube.

Miroslava Mirkovic (Belgrad): Die Stadt und das Dorf: Veterani, cives Romani und Einheimische an der unteren Donau 

Zur Erforschung der Bevölkerung an der Donau im 2. und im 3. Jahrhundert wurden die Städte und andere Niederlassungen in Pannonien (Sirmium), Ober- und Niederpannonien (Singidunum, Viminacium, Timacum Minus, Ratiaria, Montana, Oescus, Novae, Nicopolis ad Istrum) ausgewählt. Es handelt sich dabei vor allem um Siedlungen, bei denen die Hauptquelle Inschriften in großer Zahl erhalten geblieben sind. Die Mehrheit in den Städten an der Donau bildeten römische Bürger, zum Großteil auch ausgediente Soldaten. Sie lebten in den ältesten römischen Kolonien, die durch die Deduktion der Soldaten gegründet worden waren, in Sirmium in Niederpannonien, in Scupi und vielleicht auch in Ratiaria in Obermösien, sowie in den Municipien Singidunum und Viminacium, die in der Nähe der Legionslager entstanden sind. Viele Fremde waren als Händler in die Donauländer ausgewandert.

Da die Inschriften zum Großteil aus städtischen oder stadtähnlichen Niederlassungen stammen, ist es nur möglich, eine Seite des Problems, d.h. die städtische Bevölkerung zu erforschen. Diejenigen, von denen anzunehmen ist, dass sie aus der Schicht der Urbevölkerung stammten, blieben größtenteils unbekannt. Diese Einheimischen, die in den Inschriften bezeugt sind, sind romanisiert. Es ist anzunehmen, dass sie vor allen im Agrargebiet im Inneren der Provinz, in Dörfern und in der weiteren Umgebung der Städte lebten. Sie hatten auch die Möglichkeit, Soldaten zu werden und dienten nicht nur in den Auxiliareinheiten, sondern auch in den Legionen. Dann aber trugen sie römische Gentilnamen, am häufigstens Aurelius wie die Neubürger, denen von den Kaisern das römische Bürgerrecht verliehen wurde. An ihre origo erinnert nur der einheimische Name, der als Kognomen aufbewahrt wurde. Das Leben der Masse der Einheimischen, welche außerhalb der Städte lebten, kann nur anhand von archäologischen Anhaltspunkten untersucht werden.

Nemanja Mrđić (Belgrad): Colonia Viminacium and the Economy on the Frontier in the 3^rd Century

Viminacium was undoubtedly the largest economic center in the Moesian part of the Danubian limes. The boost that the city gained by Trajan’s conquering of Dacia culminated during the first half of the third century. It was raised to the rank of colonia, and the opening of the mint in 239 AD busted the economy but made internal political climate unstable. Rebellions against Galienus had a large impact on the city’s economic development. Archaeological evidence however, does not fully reflect this crisis. The closing of the mint after only 16 years in operation was significant. The abandoning of Dacia under the reign of Aurelian had a far worse impact on the economy. The return of potentially hostile tribes on the left bank of Danube endangered river communication and brought an unstable situation in the everyday life. The splitting and reorganization of the provinces also had a large psychological impact on economy and the creation of new Dacia which did not exist before (???).

The ecomic situation of the city can be traced partially through grave inventories, different workshops and villae rusticae in the vicinity of the urban zone.

Leszek Mrozewicz (Poznań): Roman Society on the Lower Danube during the Reign of the Severans

The reign of the Severan dynasty was clearly a period of prosperity for the provinces on the central and lower Danube. This was the aftermath of unequivocal support that the army and the population of that territory gave to Septimius Severus in his bid for power. It was on the Danube, in Carnuntum, that he received imperial acclamation from the soldiers; the armies of Pannonia and Moesia stood unwaveringly loyal at his side as he struggled with the other pretenders to the throne. After the final victory, the emperor amply rewarded his adherents.

This is manifested in the unprecedented scale of military and related development; the legionary strongholds and the adjoining settlements (canabae) experienced a period of building boom, there was also a clear upsurge in the settlement of veterans, both former legionaries and auxiliaries. It was precisely thanks to the Severans that many localities on the Danube obtained the rights of municipium or the status of colony (colonia). One observes a marked increase in the economic activity of persons associated with the army (veterans who took up a business or craft other than agricultural) and civilian population (inhabitants of the cities, canabae and vici). Moreover, businesspeople from other parts of the empire would appear on the lower Danube in much greater numbers. All that adds up to a dynamic picture of the society of the Lower Danubian provinces, which, after the downfall of the Severan dynasty, would become a nonpareil example to all.

Coriolan Opreanu (Cluj-Napoca): A Roman Custom Point and a “Free Tax” Frontier Market Place at Porolissum in Dacia

Trajan’s Dacia had direct contact with the barbarians on three sides. The north-western border faced the Iazyges who were not very friendly toward the new province which blocked their connection with other Sarmatian tribes from the East. After the crisis of AD 117–119 Hadrian had to reorganize Trajan’s Dacia to secure the recently conquered territories. One of his three Dacias, Dacia Porolissensis was a military district with many auxiliary units created to close the natural access routes from the north-western plain to inner Transylvania, Hadrian’s Dacia Superior. The main military point of the north-western frontier was Porolissum. During the Marcommanic wars the situation across the frontier changed. New barbarian mixed groups advanced closer to the Dacian frontier.

At Porolissum was the end of the imperial road. Just in that point a mile-castle was excavated which has attached the Roman custom office. Two inscriptions dedicated to Commodus call him restitutor commerciorum after the wars ended. Recently a rescue excavation was performed in the vicinity of the custom point and of the watch towers which protected the Roman settlement. There were no stone constructions, only large pits surrounded by post-holes, suggesting temporary structures, with light roofs and without fire installations. Instead, many archaeological artifacts were recovered: a lot of Roman fine fabric vessels, as well as hand-made pottery, more than 150 Roman bronze and silver coins (some counterfeited), more than 100 iron hobnails, 40 brooches, raw amber fragments and other small finds. The numerous coins suggest intensive trade activity. Most of the brooches are of barbarian type specific to Przeworsk culture. Our hypothesis is that it was a place where occasionally flee-markets were organized where barbarians were allowed to trade. Such markets are mentioned in ancient literary sources.

Dorel Paraschiv (Tulcea): Les relations économiques de la ville d’Ibida (Moesia Inferior/Scythia) avec le bassin Egéen: la céramique 

Dans les contextes archéologiques des I^er au III^e s. ap. J.-Chr. de (L)Ibida (Mésie Inferieure) prédomine, et de loin, la céramique pontique provenant de différents centres de productions. Si les ustensiles de cuisine et les récipients pour la boisson sont presque exclusivement produits au niveau local, les amphores viennent, pour la plupart, de Heraclea Pontica, tandis que la céramique de table est majoritairement produite dans le nord de la Mer Noire et dans le territoire de la ville de Nicopolis ad Istrum.

Les produits du bassin de la mer Egée occupent une place importante dans la poterie romaine de (L)Ibida. Ils sont représentés par deux catégories fonctionnelles : les amphores et la céramique de table. Les récipients de transport sont représentés par les amphores pour le vin (Dressel 2–4 de Cos, Crétoises 4, Kapitän II, Proto LR3) et pour l’huile (Dressel 24, Zeest 80), tandis que la vaisselle de table est représentée, surtout, par les produits des ateliers pergaméniens (Çandarli Ware).

Simone Pastor (Rom): Epigrafia anfiteatrale delle province balcanico-danubiane: analisi dei documenti e nuove interpretazioni 

Lo studio delle evidenze epigrafiche di ambito anfiteatrale finalizzato alla creazione di un Corpus dell’Occidente Romano ha portato a raccogliere e studiare 239 iscrizioni provenienti dalle province balcanico-danubiane di Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia e Moesia. I documenti concernono il mondo anfiteatrale a tuttotondo: alcuni sono relativi all’amministrazione e all’organizzazione di munera e venationes, in particolare della ratio animalium, quali due iscrizioni di dedica a Diana ritrovate a Montana; altri concernono le attività del personale ausiliario e subalterno dell’anfiteatro che si occupava della gestione, dell’organizzazione e delle attività collaterali agli spettacoli, come il sarcofago dell’idraularia Aelia Sabina, celebrata in un epitaffio da Aquincum. Altri testi ancora fanno riferimento ai protagonisti dell’arena, i gladiatori, i cui epitaffi incisi su alcune urne da Salona ne ricordano gli "affanni del vivere e del morire". Da questa imponente mole di documenti emergono inoltre iscrizioni riguardanti la costruzione o la ristrutturazione delle strutture anfiteatrali: caratteristici sono i casi di Sarmizegetusa, Burnum, Carnuntum e Aquincum. Un altro gruppo di iscrizioni proveniente dagli anfiteatri è offerto dai posti a sedere riservati, i loca adsignata, che mostrano come in queste province fosse particolarmente significativo il legame tra società civile e ambiente militare. Numerosi infine i testi che ricordano la presenza dell’elemento divino che ordina e governa lo spazio dell’anfiteatro, in particolar mondo della Dea Nemesis, fortemente attestata in tutte le province balcanico-danubiane.

Sulla base della casistica analizzata per il contesto balcanico-danubiano, il contributo presenterà una selezione ragionata di alcuni documenti che, per la loro particolarità o difficoltà interpretativa, meritano uno spunto di riflessione più approfondito, facendo particolare riferimenti ai testi oggetto di nuove interpretazioni e considerazioni.

Maria Federica Petraccia (Genua): Asclepio, Hygeia e le virtù ‘numinose’ delle acque   

Da sempre si ritiene che l’acqua, specie di fonti e di fiumi, in quanto elemento base della natura e fecondatrice della terra, abbia rivestito un ruolo di notevole importanza per tutte le comunità umane sin da epoche assai remote e in ogni spazio geografico. Questo perché essa, non solo costituiva, sul piano fisico, una risorsa fondamentale di approvvigionamento idrico e di sostentamento alimentare, oltre che un fattore determinante per la scelta dell’ubicazione degli insediamenti, ma anche perché era ritenuta un simbolo generalmente positivo e vitale di fertilità e rinascita, di purificazione e risanamento.

In un ex voto del II secolo d.C. rinvenuto nelle terme di Ad Mediam (odierna Băile Herculane) in Dacia, è espresso il ringraziamento ad Asclepio e Hygeia i quali hanno risanato dopo lunga infermità Iunia Cyrilla (CIL III, 1561 = IDR III, 1, 55 = D 3846 = AE 1962, 233).

Vladimir P. Petrović (Belgrad): The Cohors I Cretum between Naissus and the Iron Gate Limes: New Epigraphic Testimonies from Timacum Maius

Systematic archaeological excavations in the area of the village of Niševac near Svrljig, southeast Serbia, of a Roman settlement site, possibly Timacum Maius station on the main Roman road Lissus – Naissus – Ratiaria connecting the Adriatic and the Danube, has been going on for eight years. Timacum Maius was the first station from Naissus in the direction of Ratiaria. Since 2013, archaeological research has been carried out jointly by the Institute for Balkan Studies of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and the Bordeaux-based Ausonius Institute, as part of a Serbo-French research project. During the latest campaigns a portion of a larger Roman bathhouse (thermae) was discovered. The explored northeast portion is about 11m × 9m in size. So far two pools and two rooms with hypocaust heating system were discovered. Embedded in the external and internal walls of the two rooms were circular-sectioned tubuli connected to the hollow space under the floor. During the last 2014 excavation campaign we found nine bricks with stamped inscriptions of the Cohort I Cretum in the baths of Timacum Maius. This military unit moved to Upper Moesia (Moesia Superior) between 78 and 80 AD and then participated in Trajan’s Second Dacian War, when it was for the first time listed as the Cohors I Cretum sagittariorum. This unit of Cretans has returned from Dacia to Upper Moesia during the reign of Hadrian. In the 2^nd and 3^rd century AD it stayed in the permanent camp of Egeta (Brza Palanka), on the Danube limes.

Until these days, in the hinterland of the Danube frontier, this military unit was only attested by one epigraphic monument from Naissus. From the text of this inscription we learn about a certain Tiberius Claudius Valerius, cohors I Cretum veteran, who originated from Hierapytna in Crete. He lived in Naissus at the end of the 1^st century, probably before the cohort was engaged in the Dacian wars. The stay of a veteran in Naissus, at that time, indirectly points to the significant development of the city, since it was usual that the released soldiers settled in major centers of the provinces, near the place where they served their military service. The city of Naissus must have had a civilian settlement as well as a military camp at that time. But, only one inscription does not mean that the whole military unit was settled in Naissus, so it is possible that it stayed in some place nearby the Roman town. 

New findings from Timacum Maius testify to the character and history of this Roman settlement and it can be assumed that cohors I Cretum was used in the erection of public and military buildings such as baths. At least one of its detachments stayed in Timacum Maius. The well established relations of Timacum Maius and Naissus existed especially from the end of the 1^st and the beginning of the 2^nd century AD.

Ioan Piso (Cluj-Napoca): Die Ziegelstempel und die Wirtschaft der Provinz Dakien

Der Autor geht von der Idee aus, dass die Ziegelproduktion nicht nur die Bautätigkeit im zivilen und militärischen Bereich, sondern, und besonders, komplexe wirtschaftliche und soziale Strukturen widerspiegeln. Ganz wichtig ist dabei der von den Römern eingehaltene Qualitätsstandard der Ziegelproduktion, was dazu führte, dass die Herstellung der Dach- und Bauziegel nur unter gewissen Bedingungen möglich war. Die Ziegelstempel ermöglichen uns die Eigentumsverhältnisse in der Provinz zu erkennen. Wenn in einer Zeigelstempel die Formel R P, das heißt r(ei) p(ublicae), erscheint, haben wir es mit dem Eigentum einer Stadt zu tun, wie im Falle von r(ei) p(ublicae) Napocensis). Falls diese Formel von einem Namen, wie in Sarmizegetusa, begleitet wird, gehört dieser dem Pächter des öffentlichen Grundbesitzes an. Die einzelnen Namen, die in den Ziegelstempeln erscheinen, gehören immer dem Eigentümer des Grundbesitzes, aus dem auch der Lehm abgebaut war, und nicht etwa einem officinator an. In der Regel haben wir es mit dem Großgrundbesitz des Dekurionenstandes zu tun, was sich oft durch andere Inschriften bestätigen läßt. Ziegeln werden auch auf dem Grundbesitz des kaiserlichen Fiskus hergestellt. was in Napoca von der Ziegelinschrift Fisc(i) bestätigt wird. Man ist im allgemeinen überzeugt, dass selbst die Truppen, die an den dakischen Kriegen beteiligt waren, durch die Ziegelstempel bekannt werden können. Das ist aber ganz verfehlt, denn eine Ziegelproduktion kann nur in einem schon provinzialiserten Gebiet und keineswegs unter Kriegszuständen entstehen. Nicht weniger verfehlt ist die Theorie, dass die Ziegelstempel einer Truppe die Stationnierung derselben Truppe in einem gewissen Kastell automatisch bezeugen. Die Herstellung einer Charge von Ziegeln war so so kompliziert, dass es oft praktischer war, sie von grossen Entfernungen  zu bringen. Das heißt, zum Beispiel, dass man auf die Theorie, dass in der Mehrzahl der Kastellen Dakiens an den Anfängen der Provinz Vexillationen der zwei Legionen gesessen wären, verzichtet sein muß. Auch auf einen ausgedehnten wirtschaftlichen Bereich der Legionen und der Auxiliarformationen, die durch die Verbreitung der Ziegelstempel vermessen werde könnte, muß vezichtet werden. Die Truppen konnten einen bestimmten Bereich (intra leugam oder kleiner) um das Lager oder das Kastell aus dem ager publicus benutzen. Außerhalb dessen durften sie auch weitere Bereiche des ager publicus benutzen, aus dem sie, zum Beispiel, den Lehm abbauten.    

Lyuba Radulova (Sofia): Problemi di portorium in Moesia Inferior — controversie e confini

La relazione intende concentrarsi su alcuni problemi giuridici, legati al portorium nella provincia di Moesia Inferior. L’obiettivo non sarebbe porsi questioni generali sulla natura e le fondamenta giuridiche di questa imposta indiretta, ma focalizzarsi su due documenti epigrafici particolari, i quali permettono di conoscere alcune difficoltà concrete, legate al funzionamento pratico del portorium nella zona e soprattutto ai problemi dei confini amministrativi.

Verrà analizzata in primo luogo una controversia sorta tra la città di Tyras e il conductor portorii Illyrici (IOSPE I² 4). Il problema centrale è la fondatezza delle pretese della città di essere immune del portorium e la riconferma dell’immunitas da parte dell’imperatore. Si rilevano, inoltre riferimenti indiretti a diversi tipi di abusi, volti a evitare l’onere del portorium. Prendendo spunto da questo tema principale verranno sottolineate le complesse dinamiche politico-economiche, legate alla politica economica dei Severi e ai cambiamenti nello status giuridico delle città, che portano a una graduale limitazione della loro autonomia. 

Verrà presentata anche una seconda controversia tra la città di Histria e il conductor portorii Illyrici (IScM I 67–68). Si avanzeranno ipotesi sulla natura del conflitto, proponendo anche una nuova lettura di alcuni passi poco chiari. L’attenzione si concentrerà, tuttavia, soprattutto sulle ragioni della controversia. Essa, infatti, sembra sorgere dall’incertezza riguardo ai confini amministrativi nella zona e, rispettivamente, alla portata dei diritti delle due controparti. Il documento offre spunti preziosi per lo studio sia del funzionamento pratico della riscossione delle tasse nella Moesia Inferior, sia dei problemi amministrativi e fiscali, nati dal movimento continuo dei confini nella zona.

Davide Redaelli (Triest): La presenza e il ruolo di soldati e veterani delle milizie urbane nelle società di Pannonia, Mesia e Dacia

Lo studio si propone di analizzare la presenza e il ruolo di soldati e veterani delle milizie urbane nelle società di Pannonia, Mesia e Dacia. L’indagine verrà condotta principalmente sulle epigrafi di pretoriani, urbaniciani ed equites singulares Augusti attestati nell’area in esame; ma non si trascureranno le fonti letterarie, indispensabili nel mostrare i movimenti degli eserciti e degli imperatori, dei quali le truppe urbane costituivano la scorta, nella zona considerata. Si metteranno in evidenza soprattutto le motivazioni della presenza di questi soldati e veterani in Pannonia, Mesia e Dacia, il loro rapporto con le società civili e l’estrazione etnica e sociale delle reclute. La documentazione, non molto numerosa nel I e II secolo d.C., diventa molto più cospicua nel III secolo d.C., quando, dopo la riforma di Settimio Severo, i pretoriani erano reclutati soprattutto nelle province danubiane e spesso ritornavano in patria dopo aver ottenuto l’honesta missio.

Silvia Ripà / Laura Audino (Ferrara): Testimonianze epigrafiche dell’evergetismo privato nelle province danubiane

Le testimonianze epigrafiche concorrono a restituire un quadro attendibile della composizione sociale ed economica delle comunità e delle città dell’Impero romano. In questo contributo, attraverso l’analisi sistematica di tutte le epigrafi rinvenute in ambito danubiano, si focalizza l’attenzione sul fenomeno evergetico, visto nelle sue molteplici sfaccettature. Nel tessuto economico e sociale di una comunità antica la liberalitas, vale a dire la generosità da parti di privati verso la collettività, rappresentò un fenomeno socioeconomico di vasta portata, che ebbe una notevole incidenza sulla vita municipale, differenziandosi però a seconda del territorio, in base alle potenzialità economiche e alle consuetudini locali. La caratterizzazione del fenomeno evergetico si rivela dunque estremamente importante per comprendere a fondo le dinamiche sociali di un determinato areale geografico, come quello delle province danubiane. Uno studio di questo tipo ci consente di giungere a conclusioni utili ai fini di una più completa ricostruzione della realtà socioeconomica delle città danubiane.

Peter Rothenhöfer (München): Metallum Messallini — neue Erkenntnisse zur römischen Durchdringung des Raumes zwischen Adria und Donau um die Zeitenwende

Untersuchungen an römischen Bleibarren, die in der Region zwischen Adria und mittlerer Donau produziert wurden, lassen weit über rein wirtschaftshistorische Resultate hinausgehende Erkenntnisse zu. Insbesondere ein aus Bergwerken des Messallinus stammender Barren vermag Hinweise zu geben auf bislang unbekannte Details der römischen Herrschaft im Zeitalter des Augustus in diesem Raum.

Zudem wird auf der Basis neuer naturwissenschaftlicher Daten die Provenienz der Bleibarren aus dem Wrack von Comacchio thematisiert, von denen ein Teil nicht wie bisher angenommen aus hispanischen Minen stammt, sondern Erzlagerstätten im westlichen Balkanraum zuzuschreiben ist.

Alexander Rubel (Iași): Überlegungen zum Barbarenbegriff der Römer: Geten, Daker und Thraker in den Augen der Römer

„Barbarus hic ego sum, quia non intelligor illis“ bemerkt der verbitterte Ovid in seinem Exil in Tomis (Constanza im heutigen Rumänien). Diese ironische Selbstzuweisung des Dichters in der Fremde — „lost in translation“ — verweist indirekt auf ein grundlegendes Problem, das die Römer mit dem eigentlich griechischen Konzept „Barbar“ hatten: Sie waren immer unsicher, ob sie nicht selbst eigentlich zu den Barbaren zählen. Darüber hinaus passt auch ihr Bürgerrechtsbegriff und die verbreitete Freilassungspolitik nicht zu dem exklusivistischen „wir – ihr“ Konzept des ursprünglichen Barbarenbegriffs. Deshalb ist die römische Übernahme des Barbarenbegriffs (sowie der diese oft verkennende leichtfertige moderne Gebrauch) in höchstem Maße ambivalent und bedarf einer genaueren Klärung und einer Abgrenzung vom aus römischer Sicht eigentlich treffenderen (und häufigeren) Konzept „gens“, zumal der Barbarenbegriff im Verlauf der römischen Reichsgeschichte (auch durch die erst späte auftauchende territoriale Definition „Barbaricum“) Wandlungen mitmacht. Im Vordergrund des Vortrags sollen neben allgemeinen und grundsätzlichen Überlegungen zum Barbarenbegriff die Daker, Geten und Thraker in der Wahrnehmung der Römer als Fallbeispiel stehen. In den einschlägigen Untersuchungen über die Wahrnehmung des Fremden durch die Römer sind die „gentes“ an der unteren Donau unterrepräsentiert und eine bewertende Verortung im Koordinatensystem römischer Fremdwahrnehmung steht noch aus.

Viorica Rusu-Bolindeţ (Cluj-Napoca): Local Production of Pottery Workshops from Roman Dacia Attested in Epigraphical and Archaeological Sources

The ceramic production of the workshops from the province of Dacia, attested through several categories of epigraphic and archaeological sources, is impressive. Thus, my analysis of the main production centers in Roman Dacia focuses on the following aspects, necessary in demonstrating the existence of local production and the possibility of identifying the inner organization of the workshops:

A. Epigraphic evidence

1. Attested producers’/potters’ names on pottery products – potters’ stamps on local terra sigillata, on stamped pottery, lamps and mortaria, less often on common pottery items.

2. Grafitti with potters’ names – made before firing (ante cocturam).

3. Attested craftmen or workshop owners in (funerary or votive) inscriptions. 

B. Archaeological evidence:

1. The existence of structures part of pottery workshops: kilns, clay extraction pits, equipment for clay preparation, refuse pits, other built structures of the workshops (areas for the drying and storage of vessels), wells etc.

2. The existence of moulds for various pottery categories and of potters‘ tools for their decoration.

3. Attested industrial-scale pottery production, individualized through the manufacture of pottery categories specific to a particular center of production alone, through the distribution of pottery products over an extensive area, or through fabric analysis. 

The above mentioned epigraphic and archaeological sources have revealed the activity of more than 30 pottery workshops in Roman Dacia; this presentation focuses on the most representative workshops, selected according to a two-fold criterion: the existence of archaeological and epigraphic sources that should be as conclusive as possible on the activity of the pottery production centers (according to the above mentioned criteria), and the different environments where the workshops were active (urban/rural, civilian/military), in order to observe thus both their general characteristics and, especially, the peculiarities of pottery production on the level of the entire province.

Mirjana Sanader (Zagreb): Diokletians langer Weg nach Carnuntum

Diokletian, der das Römische Reich von 284 bis 305 n.Chr. regierte, gilt heute noch als einer der prominentesten und erfolgreichsten Kaiser. Obwohl der genaue Ort seiner Geburt nicht bekannt ist, sind sich die Forscher einig, dass er aus Dalmatien stammte, und zwar wahrscheinlich aus der Nähe von Salona. Nach seiner Abdankung am 1. Mai 305 als Senior Augustus in Nikomedia begab er sich nach Dalmatien, das damals unter der Zuständigkeit seines Schwiegersohns Galerius stand. Er zog sich in seine Residenz in der Nähe von Salona zurück, wo er die letzten zehn Jahre seines Lebens verbrachte. Zu der Zeit wusste Diokletian nicht, dass die Tetrarchie, die er in bester Absicht und zum Wohle des Reiches gegründet hatte, in den Moment, als er sich nach Salona zurückzog, zusammenbrechen sollte. Um sein Werk zu retten, fand am 11. Nov. 308 die Kaiserkonferenz in Carnuntum statt. Bei dieser Gelegenheit wollen wir an Hand der archäologischen Forschung versuchen, die Antwort auf die Frage zu finden, welche Straßen Diokletian auf seinem Wege von Palast in Split nach Carnuntum benutzte.

Agnes Dorothea Schütte (Tübingen): Fortifikation in Friedenszeiten — Stadtmauern als materielle Quellen am Beispiel der römischen Kaiserzeit

Stadtmauern als materielle Quellen haben für den Betrachter in erster Linie eine militärische Funktion, geben Auskunft über Bedrohungslagen und Verteidigungsstrategien, über friedlichere oder kriegerischere Zeiten. Darüber hinaus sind aber genauso sowohl eine wirtschaftliche als auch eine politisch-repräsentative Bedeutung nicht von der Hand zu weisen. Stadtmauern sollten von jeher Handelsplätze und kommunales Gewerbe schützen und machten gleichzeitig aufgrund ihrer Größe und handwerklichen Komplexität immense, zentral gesteuerte Planungen und Investitionen notwendig. Um nun das Vorhandenseins einer Stadtmauer um eine Siedlung analytisch zu betrachten bietet sich — wie angedeutet — mit der Zeit der Pax Romana eine besonders interessante Situation, da urbane Fortifikation in Friedenszeiten auch in den Donauprovinzen des römischen Reiches betrieben wurde, obwohl die Pax Romana militärische Fortifikation überflüssig gemacht hatte. Ging es demnach bei den fortifikatorischen Grenzziehungen der Städte in der Kaiserzeit nur noch um Simulation des Militärischen, hatten die Anlagen eine politisch-symbolische Repräsentationsfunktion um weiteren Zuzug von Bevölkerung zu unterstützen? Oder ging es beim Mauerbau um die zeichenhafte Abgrenzung der Stadt, um Identitätsstiftung, ein sakrales pomerium das profane Gestalt angenommen hatte wie in der Hauptstadt Rom? Gab es gar sozialpsychologische Gründe für Fortifikationen ohne militärische Notwendigkeit beispielsweise in Veteranensiedlungen? Die meisten erhielten eine Siedlungsmauer in starker Anlehnung an Befestigungs- und Lagerarchitektur. Der Vortrag stellt die These auf, dass der Mauerbau in Friedenszeiten primär als kaiserliche Herrschaftsstrategie anzusehen ist, welche die Errichtung von Stadtmauern, die in früheren Zeiten Signifikanten städtischer Selbstbehauptung- und Selbstabgrenzung in feindlicher Umwelt waren, verwaltungstechnisch und programmatisch umgedeutet zu einem Ausweis kaiserlicher Gunst und inter-städtischen Wettstreits um die selbige. Durch die Zentralisierung der Baugenehmigungen monopolisiert die römische Zentralgewalt den städtischen Mauerbau und liefert ein prägnantes Beispiel für eine quasi „flüssige“ Herrschaftstechnik, die einen baulichen Signifikanten, der einstmals für Autonomie und Selbstverteidigung stand, unter der Hand zum Signifikat kaiserlicher Macht umdeutet.

Alessandro Teatini (Sassari): Marmi di Costantinopoli nella provincia Scythia al tempo di Giustiniano: i dati degli arredi architettonici della basilica cristiana di Ibida

La diffusione della decorazione architettonica di produzione costantinopolitana nell’ambito della provincia Scythia trova ora nuovi spunti di riflessione grazie ad alcuni capitelli ionici ad imposta recuperati nell’area della città romana di Ibida, nell’attuale località di Slava Rusă (Contea di Tulcea). I materiali provengono da una grande basilica cristiana solo parzialmente scavata all’inizio del Novecento e di datazione incerta. Oltre a fornire utili indicazioni circa l’inquadramento cronologico dell’edificio, questi pezzi arricchiscono al contempo il quadro sinora delineato relativamente all’esportazione degli elementi architettonici in marmo da Costantinopoli nelle regioni pontiche: in particolare i capitelli sono riferibili ad una serie ben definita nei suoi elementi tipologici, dovuta ad officine attive a Costantinopoli in età giustinianea e legate, almeno in taluni casi, alla committenza imperiale. Argomenti di dibattito ulteriori sono offerti sia da una base semplificata di colonna proveniente dallo stesso edificio di Ibida, inscritta con un marchio di cava, sia dall’identificazione delle varietà di marmo utilizzate per questi pezzi, quale è scaturita da analisi eseguite in passato su alcuni di essi: i risultati di tali analisi verranno discussi alla luce delle attuali conoscenze sui marmi usualmente impiegati per gli elementi architettonici delle medesime classi.

Agnieszka Tomas (Warschau): On the Way to a Reconstruction of the Civilian Settlement near Novae (Moesia inferior). The Epigraphic Evidence

We all leave traces of our existence. Exactly as our predecessors, who mainly left traces of their homes, public buildings they acted in, burial rituals, but most of all trash. When people want to leave a trace behind, they leave a certain, specific kind of trace. Individuals mentioned in inscriptions form a random group of people, not necessarily well-representing the society they were living in, but rather those who wanted to leave a certain trace.

Nevertheless, epigraphic evidence is too important to be treated as inconsequential. Trying to reconstruct life in civilian-military communities one has to collect and analyze the information preserved on inscribed stones since very often this is the only source of information about peoples’ names, position or family. This particularly refers to those who lived on the outskirts of the Roman empire; inhabitants of the settlements attached to the military fortresses.

This paper presents civilian individuals known from epigraphic monuments discovered at Novae in Lower Moesia. The scarcity of information forces us to assess the representativeness, accuracy, and value of these sources, but also try to find what is “behind” the text.

Domagoj Tončinić (Zagreb): Die römischen Militärlager von Siscia. Der Gegensatz von historischen Quellen und archäologischen Befunden

Nach Angaben in historischen Quellen haben die Römer seit dem 2. Jh. v. Chr. mehrmals das vorrömische Segestica belagert, bevor es unter Octavianus 35 v. Chr. endgültig erobert wurde. Zur Zeit des Bellum Batonianum 6–9 n. Chr. war Siscia der bedeutendste römische Militärstützpunkt im Illyricum und ist spätestens bis zur Gründung der Colonia Flavia Siscia um 71. nach Chr. ein Militärlager geblieben. Für einen römischen Militärstützpunkt Siscia sprechen auch zahlreiche Kleinfunde, die vor allem im Archäologischen Museum in Zagreb und dem Stadtmuseum in Sisak aufbewahrt werden. Diese machen Siscia zum derzeit größten und bedeutendsten Fundort römischer Waffen und Ausrüstungsgegenstände in Kroatien. Im Gegensatz zu den historischen Quellen und archäologischen Funden besitzen wir bis heute keine archäologische Befunde, die sich eindeutig als Reste eines römischen Militärlagers interpretieren lassen. Die moderne Stadt Sisak lässt nur wenig Raum für eine gezielte Suche übrig. Nur Rettungsgrabungen kleineren Umfangs lieferten in den letzten Jahre Neuigkeiten zum antiken Siscia. Die vorläufigen Ergebnisse dieser Rettungsgrabungen, die zur Verfügung stehen, und Parallelen zu anderen römischen Militärstützpunkten derselben Zeit sollen hier auf der Suche nach den Militärlagern von Siscia vorgestellt werden.

Ivo Topalilov (Shumen): Some Notes on the Society of Colonia Ulpia Ratiaria

The shift of the Limes after the successful Dacian wars of Trajan in 106 AD allowed urban development of the region of the Lower Danube, part of which was the establishment of one Roman colony in the province of Moesia Superior – Colonia Ulpia Ratiaria. The new colony required a new urban society according to her rank, so in the proposed paper a synopsis of all the epigraphic data concerning the society in the colony will be made on the basis of office, collegia, origin according to onomastic material etc. Some new data will be added from newly discovered epigraphic evidence from the archaeological campaign in Ratiaria in 2014 conducted by the author and Zdravko Dimitrov. This study will reveal the mechanism of the establishment of a new society in the lower urbanized, but mostly military (?), region.

Rada Varga (Cluj-Napoca): Vulgus veritatis interpres. A Glimpse on the Middle Classes from the Low Danube Provinces

The title of the proposed presentation paraphrases Seneca’s expression vulgus veritatis pessimus interpes (De vita beata, 2.1), but while the philosopher expresses his mistrust in the Roman plebeians, we state our intention to recreate a part of the Empire’s provincial social history starting from the sources created by the “invisible Romans”. We aim at an overview on the epigraphically attested representatives of the middle classes in the provinces of Pannonia, Dacia and Moesia (gathered under the generic term of “Low Danube provinces”, though we also include Pannonia Superior). Terminologically, we mainly consider those persons to be part of the middle class who register epigraphical manifestations (thus, they cannot be considered economically or socially as low strata), but are not members of the imperial or local elites; the few possible exceptions or ambiguous cases will be documented and discussed as such.

The research is based on the intrinsic and a succinct extrinsic examination of the selected epigraphical sources. We will undertake quantitative and comparative analyses, as well as qualitative researches based on various aspects: occupational epigraphy, commemoration habits, (self-)identifying elements, etc. Our purpose is to obtain a general view on the epigraphical habits of these individuals, based on a complete database encompassing them, as well as to obtain a comparative perspective between the mentioned provinces.

Mattia Vitelli Casella (Bologna): Appunti sulla romanizzazione delle diverse aree della Dalmazia

L’obiettivo di questo intervento è quello di indagare i momenti e la profondità di questo fenomeno storico, che per troppo tempo è stato al centro di polemiche strumentali che hanno avuto il sopravvento su una sua seria analisi. Intendendo piuttosto il processo come l’acculturazione, ossia come un «lento e pacifico assorbimento della popolazione» (R. Matijašić, L'Istria tra Epulone e Augusto: archeologia e storia della romanizzazione dell'Istria (II sec. a.C. - I sec. d.C.), «AAAd» 37 (1991), p. 240) locale nei confronti del portato culturale — nel senso più ampio del termine — della potenza romana, intendo andare a verificarlo attraverso le attestazioni epigrafiche in alcuni centri scelti come esemplari per i diversissimi ambiti territoriali di cui era formata la provincia di Dalmazia, che, difatti, comprendeva città costiere frequentate fin dalla tarda Repubblica da mercanti italici e aree che erano ancora organizzate in villaggi isolati e fortificati al momento della definitiva sottomissione augustea. Fra i vari criteri che possono essere scelti per verificare la romanizzazione, saranno presi in considerazione il patrimonio onomastico, i culti e le iscrizioni imperiali, che possono riflettere un sincero sentimento di vicinanza della popolazione alla casata regnante e quindi al centro del potere. Interessante all’interno di quest’analisi potrebbe essere anche la suddivisione della documentazione epigrafica per genere, onde verificare se l’elemento femminile fosse rimasto più legato alle tradizioni locali oppure fosse avanzato allo stesso livello degli uomini.

Paolo Vitellozzi (Mailand/Heidelberg): Un amuleto magico di età imperiale e il culto delle divinità equestri danubiane

I manufatti detti convenzionalmente “gemme magiche” costituiscono un corpus particolarmente ricco di documenti riguardanti la magia e la religione in età imperiale. Esse differiscono dalla produzione glittica ordinaria per due caratteristiche fondamentali. La prima è la selezione di particolari motivi iconografici della tradizione antica, rifunzionalizzati in base a nuove istanze religiose: vi è poi la presenza di particolari iscrizioni e simboli magici. Mentre sono celebri le collezioni dei più grandi musei d’Europa, alcune, anche significative raccolte italiane sono rimaste a lungo dimenticate: fra queste vi è quella del Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell’Umbria a Perugia, quasi sconosciuta sino al momento della sua edizione complessiva. Essa comprende al suo interno un significativo nucleo di gemme magiche la cui importanza non è sfuggita agli autori della Sylloge Gemmarum Gnosticarum, che già nel 2007 provvidero a inserirle nel corpus relativo alle collezioni italiane. Fra queste gemme, una delle più conosciute è certamente un diaspro raffigurante le divinità equestri danubiane, in cui si può a buon diritto riconoscere il manifesto religioso dei seguaci del ben noto culto misteriosofico che da queste divinità prende il nome, assai diffuso fra le gerarchie militari in Dacia, Mesia e Pannonia. La riedizione di questo manufatto così significativo offre lo spunto per riesaminare le informazioni in nostro possesso sul milieu religioso di cui la gemma è espressione. Analizzando singolarmente i diversi elementi iconografici presenti sull’amuleto, argomento della relazione che si propone, e ponendoli in relazione con altre testimonianze letterarie e iconografiche, si potranno osservare da un insolito punto di vista alcuni aspetti di un culto proprio dell’area danubiana, espressione della società nel cui ambito esso si sviluppò.

Ingrid Weber-Hiden (Wien): The Economic Significance of Freedmen in Northwestern Pannonia 

Unter den Grabstelen des 1. Jhs. n. Chr. aus Carnuntum für Zivilpersonen sind vor allem solche für und von Freigelassenen. Neben Händlern, die sich selbst als negotiator oder lixa bezeichnen sind es vor allem libertae, die sich Grabsteine — ausnahmslos solche von besserer Qualität — leisten können. Ihre Präsenz ist eng mit dem Militär verbunden und mit Tätigkeiten, die offenbar nach der Stadtgründung und dem Ausbau der canabae ab den 80iger Jahren des 1. Jhs. von anderen Personen übernommen wurden, da alle Belege für vermögende Freigelassene in das 1. Jh. datiert werden können. Die Bedeutung von Libertinen besonders in den Anfängen der Stadtentwicklung in Noricum und im westlichen Pannonien wurde schon mehrfach betont, aber außerhalb der urbanen Zentren blieb die Frage nach der Rolle der Freigelassenen im Wesentlichen noch unbeantwortet.

Deshalb soll besonderes Augenmerk auf eine Analyse der Inschriften aus dem Territoriumsbereich sowohl von Carnuntum als auch von Vindobona und möglicherweise auch von Scarbantia — die Grenzen der Territorien sind nach wie vor problematisch — gelegt werden. Auch hier überwiegen die Belege für das 1. Jh., obwohl man mit ganz anderen Aufgabenbereichen der Libertinen wird rechnen dürfen. Nehmen wir etwa die Freigelassenen peregriner Frauen, die als „Hausherrin“ wohl die Angelegenheiten des Gutshofes regelten, so werden die Tätigkeiten der Freigelassenen wohl auch in diesem Bereich zu finden sein. Anhand der Verteilungsmuster kann man auch die unterschiedlichen Libertinen — Männer, Frauen, Freigelassenen von Peregrinen oder römischen Bürgern — schwerpunktmäßig bestimmten Regionen zuordnen, die vielleicht auch Rückschlüsse auf den jeweiligen Tätigkeitsbereich zulassen. 

John Wilkes (London/Oxford): Bilingual and Mixed-Language Epitaphs in the Danubian Provinces

Mihail Zahariade (Bukarest): Age and Service of the Legionaries of Thracian Origin in the 1^st–3^rd Century Roman Imperial Army

The paper presents in a statistic form the limits in which lifetime service of the legionaries of Thracian origin unfolded, from the recruitment age until the moment and place of their death. Commentaries on a highly rich epigraphic material stresses on the categories of age, from the earliest to the latest, age and intensity of recruitment, the political and military factors as ground for recruitment, circumstances of the decease. The indication of length of life and service is a common feature on the epitaphs of the soldiery. Most of the cases display the age and the duration of service, but there are situations when only the age is indicated. Age and length of service are usually interrelated.

The tabulated records show that the majority of the cases are premature death during the service caused by warfare or other events. A fair number offer the age of the veteran after the completion of the mission when he died in a place where he settled after service. Mention of both length of service and age of decease are most frequent. In few cases only one of the two is recorded. The gods of the underground (Diis Manes) are usually invoked. 

The ratio between the length of service and the death is essential in the estimation of the age of enlistment into the army. The death occurred prematurely due to the military events in which the subjects had been involved. As commonly Roman worldwide, the Thracian legionary soldiers display the same general features of the ratio between age and length of service, although there are some particular traits worth to be highlighted. It is relevant that the life of most of the individuals ends in their 30s and 40s, evidence which, compared to the places where tombstones were set, represents a clear indication of direct involvement in active events in different parts of the Roman Empire. On the other hand it shows that more experienced contingents were used in such occasions, while the individuals in their 20s hold a low percentage.